Ch+4,+5,+6,+7+-+Brooklyn

__ Bio Notes – Ch 4, 5, 6, 7  __ ** __ Chapter 4:  __ ** 1. Organic Compounds – compounds built of carbon combined with other elements. Can be broken down to the elements from which they were formed. · Elements are made of atoms which are made of even smaller particles. Each atom has a nucleus, protons (+), neutrons (not charged), electrons (-). 2. Ions – A charged particle that has either a negative or positive charge. 3. Synthesis – reactions that lead to the build-up of compounds. 4. Decomposition – compounds are broken down. · For a chemical reaction to take place, the reacting substances must come in contact with each other. This happens most when the substances are in solution that is dissolved in water. 5. Ionization – when non-ionic compounds are converted into ions. · Chemical reactions usually involve energy. Synthesis reactions require a certain input of energy. Decomposition usually releases energy. Energy is harder than matter to understand. Energy can be described as the ability to do work or to cause change. 6. Catalyst – speeds up a reaction. · In the process of photosynthesis, green plants convert light energy from the sun into chemical energy then can be used either in complex food molecules. That chemical energy that can be used ether by the plants themselves or by organisms that eat the plants. Because animals cannot make their own food, most animals depend on plants for their source of energy as well as matter. Directly or indirectly, therefore photosynthesis is that source of energy for biological activity in almost all organisms on earth. A plant can also absorb carbon dioxide molecules from the air and water molecules from the soil. Light energy, carbon dioxide, and water are the raw materials used to make sugars. The light energy is used to break down water molecules to hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen is combined with carbon dioxide molecules to for the sugar molecules. This means that some of the light energy absorbed by the plant is stored in the sugar molecules as chemical energy. The oxygen is released into the air as oxygen gas. When sugars are formed several small molecules together. The energy used to form the sugars is stored in the structure of the molecules. When sugar molecules are broken down in a cell, the energy stored in them is released. That energy is used by the cell to do the cellular work. 7. Cellular Respiration – a series of chemical reactions that occur in all living cells. 8. Chlorophyll – a green pigment that gives plants their color. · The chemical energy in food is also released by chemical reactions. The chemical reactions in a cell are quite different from those in a fire. When fuels burn, a large amount of energy is released in a short time. If too much energy is released at once the cells will be destroyed and not useable due to too much heat. 9. ATP: adenosine triphosphate, which is the chemical energy stored in compounds. 10. ADP: Adenosine diphosphate, which makes it so energy, can be stored. · Carbon is the central element for all living systems. Carbon atoms can join together to form rings or chains. They can also combine with hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and phosphorus to form a huge number of organic compounds. 11. Carbohydrates: Organic compounds made of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, with the oxygen and hydrogen atoms in a 2:1 ratio. 12. Lipids: a fat, oil or fatlike compound that usually has fatty acid in its molecular structure. It is also an important structure of the plasma membrane. 13. Proteins: function as enzymes and form part of the cell structure. Muscles and meat are produces mostly of protein. 14. Nucleic acids: are hereditary or genetic materials for all organisms. They also coordinate the activities of the cell. · Carbohydrates are single sugars, such as glucose and fructose, which contain no more than 7 atoms in each molecule. Glucose molecules can be changed into other biological molecules within the cell. Cellulose is a major part of wood and cotton fibres, gives the cell walls surrounding plat cells their rigidity. · Lipids contain fewer oxygen atoms that carbohydrates, and a very important energy storage. Simple fats are the lipids most common in human diets and bodies. There fats are mad of two types if lipid building blocks; glycerol, which is a single sugar, and fatty acids, which are chains of carbon and hydrogen with an acid grouping on one end. 15. Amino Acids: the subunit of a protein containing carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. · There are two types of amino acids that also contain sulphur. Twenty different types of amino acids can be found in a protein molecule. 16. Polypeptide: a long chain of amino acids. · Most enzymes are large, complex proteins made by the cell. Like other catalysts, enzymes promote reactions but are not used up in the reactions. They catalyze both reactions. They allow chemical reactions to take place at the temperature of the cell. They are needed in only small amounts, because one enzyme molecule can complete the same reaction thousands of times in a single minute! 17. Active Site: the shape of a small area of the enzyme. 18. Enzyme-Substrate complex: when the molecules combine with the active site of an enzyme. 19. Synthesis reaction: two or more small molecules combine with the enzyme. 20. Nucleic Acids: RNA (ribonucleic acid), DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) · Each living cell has its own RNA and DNA. Information stored in DNA controls all cells activities and determine the genetic, or hereditary, characteristics of the cell and the organism. RNA is needed for the synthesis of proteins, including enzymes. Both DNA and RNA are made up of individual subunits called nucleotides, which are small molecules linked together. ** __ Chapter 5:  __ ** · All organisms are made up of tiny, highly active units called cells. Some organisms are unicellular. 1. Cell Theory: the idea that cells are the basic units of life 2. Prokaryotes: cells that do not have a membrane enclosing their DNA. 3. Eukaryotes: cells that usually have at least one membrane enclosed structure. 4. Nucleus: the central core, containing positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons. 5. Organelles: an organized structure within a cell, with a specific function. 6. Plasma Membrane: made of two thin layers of lipid molecules arranged in a definite pattern. 7. Nuclear envelope: a double membrane that surrounds the nucleus. 8. Genes: the units of hereditary information that control the basic fubctions of a cell. 9. Chromosomes: long strands of nucleotides that wrap around protein molecules. They also only become visible during nuclear division. 10. Mitochondria: the powerhouses of the cell. 11. Ribosomes: found along membranes, proteins are manufactured on the ribsomoes which are visible in the electron micrograph. 12. Lysosomes: one type of organelle in animal cells, which contain a variety of digestive enzymes that help break down large molecules and worn-out cell parts. 13. Centrioles: are paired cylindrical structures that play an important role in cell division. 14. Chloroplasts: many plants contain them, it is a pigment that is essential for capturing the energy in sunlight. 15. Vacuoles: fluid filled structures that are surrounded by single membranes. 16. Cytoskeleton: when a complex network of ultrafine protein filaments within the cytosol forms an internal skeleton. 17. Metabolism: the rate of digestion. 18. Diffusion: substance tries to move to a place where it’s not as concentrated so the area is all concentrated to the same amount. 19. Osmosis: the diffusion of liquids such as water through membranes. · If the concentration of water molecules is greater outside the cell water comes in and the cell swells. If concentration is greater on the inside it shrinks and shrivels. 20. Passive transport: no energy is expended by the cell transport proteins move substance down there concentration gradient. Cells transport many essential ions by this. 21. Active transport: energy in the form of ATP is used to move substances across a membrane against a con-concentration gradient. · The life of eukaryotic cell consists of a continuous sequence of events collect t he cycle. It starts with the formation of a new cell and continues until the cell itself has divided into two new cells. Then each cell begins the cell cycle anew. The dramatic and visible events of all division are only a brief portion of the cell cycle. A cell spends most of its life between divisions in a stags known as interphase. The cell may appear to be inactive in interphase, chemically it is very active needed. During this all normal metabolic activities take place in internicate(?) preparations for division occur in a precise sequence. 22. Life Cycle: all the events that occur between the beginning of one generation and the beginning of the next. · Mitosis is the division of regular cells, (everything else), in the body. Meiosis is the division of gametes, (sperm and ova), in the body. ** __ Chapter 6:  __ ** 23. Asexual Reproduction: New individuals originate from a single parent. 24. Sexual Reproduction: when two special cells are united, a new individual is produces. 25. Gametes: a certain cell needed to form a new individual in sexual reproduction. · Males produce gametes called sperm, women produce gametes called egg cells or an ova. 26. Fertilization: a new individual occurs when two nuclei of two gametes, one from each parent. 27. Haploid: gametes are called a haploid because they contain only one chromosome from each parent. 28. Diploid: cells with both chromosomes of each pair are called a diploid. 29. Zygote: an egg. · Testes are a reproductive organ where meiosis and gamete formation occur in a male. Ovaries are the reproductive organ where meiosis and gamete formation occur in a female. 30. Embryo: developing organism. · Gametes are not provided until puberty in males, but in females meiosis begins in the embryo. 31. Hormones: chemicals that influence the reproductive organs. 32. Feedback System: the complex set of interactions a network of stimulant and responses. · Menstrual cycle is a monthly ovum releasing cycle. Eventually menopause comes and it is the cessation of the menstrual cycle, indicates a woman is no longer capable of reproduction. 33. Uterus: muscular pear shaped organ, developed during pregnancy. 34. Hypothalamus: part of the brain that help to adjust the level of hormones in the body. 35. Pituitary: just underneath the brain and it secretes two hormones that act on the ovaries. 36. Progesterone: acts with estrogens to stimulate additional build up on lining the uterus. 37. Estrogens: effects the uterus causing on increase in blood supply and thickening of the lining. · Three basic activities result in embryonic development, cell division, cell movement and cell diffraction which is when new cells specialize and become different in appearance and function from their parents cell. · Cleavage is an early cell division. It eventually turns the zygotes into blastula which is a hollow ball of several hundred cells. Then cells flow from the surface to the interior of the blastula so new layers of cell lines the original blastula then the blastula becomes gastrula which has three distinct cell layers. The original surface layer (ectoderm), the new inner later (endoderm), and the third later the mesoderm. 38. Chroion: extends finger like projections into the inner line of the uterus. 39. Placenta: receives the nourishments from the baby’s mother and eliminates waste. 40. Umbilical Cord: gases and other molecules can diffuse from the blood of the mother through the placenta into blood vessels in the cord then into the circulatory system of the embryo. 41. Amnion: Encloses the body of the embryo and fills with fluid. 42. Fetus: after 12 weeks of being pregnancy the baby inside the mother is now classified a fetus. 43. Oncogenes: