Jenny's+Chapter+Review

=Bio 30 Chapter Reviews=

__﻿Chapter 4__
- can be broken down to the elements from which they were formed, like sugar photosynthes: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy //→// C6H12O6 + 6 O2 carbon dioxide + water + sun = glucose + oxygen cellular respiration: C6H12O6 + 6 O2 //→// 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy sugar + oxygen = carbon + water + Energy the hydrogen ion level of a solution is described by a range of numbers ATP - the energy transfer compounds that are found in all organisms - the energy is used to make ATP molecules. - energy is stored in ATP until it is released by reactions that remove the third phosphate group from ATP. ADP - the compound that remains when a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to a cell reaction site requiring energy input. - **carbonhydrate** is single sugar - **fats** are glycerol (single sugar) and fatty acids - **protein** molecule is an amino acid - **nucleic acids** are nucleotides - the central element for all living systems four basic types of carbon-containing molecules are found in all organisms: - the sugars produced in photosynthesis and used in respiration. - form part of the cell structure. - oils and fats are examples of lipids. - from part of the cell structure. - form part of the cell structure. - coordinate the activities of the cell. - allow chemical reactions to take place at the temperature of the cell. - active site( the specific portion of an enzyme that attaches to the substrate through weak chemical bonds.) can attract and hold only specific molecules. - catalyze both synthesis(two or more small molecules combine with the enzyme.the enzyme provides the proper alignment, which enables these small molecules to join into one large molecule.) and decomposition reactions( the substrate cimbines with the enzyme and is split into two or more smaller molecules). - the enzyme aligns the reacting molecules precisely and permits chemical changes to be completed rapidly at low temperatures. - synthesis reaction: - decomposition reaction: - each living cell has its own DNA and RNA - are made up of individual subunots: nucleotides __RNA__ - required for the synthesis of proteins, include enzymes - smaller and may be single stranded of nucleotides __DNA__ - information stored in DNA controls all cell activities and determines the genetic characteristics of the cell and the organism - are made of two strands with thousands of linked nucleotides
 * **organic compounds**
 * -** compounds built of carbon combined with other elements
 * **﻿synthesis reactions** - reactions that lead to the buildup of compounds
 * **decomposition reactions** - the reactions that lead to be broken down of compounds
 * **ionization**
 * **photosynthesis and cellular respiration**
 * **pH scale**
 * **ATP and ADP**
 * **the subunits of**
 * **carbon**
 * carbohydrates -** important energy-storing compound.
 * lipids -** important energy-storing compound.
 * proteins -** function as enzymes
 * nucleic acids -** genetic material for all organisms.
 * **enzymes**
 * -** most are large, complex proteins made by the cell.
 * **RNA and DNA**
 * -** nucleic acids that are present in all cells and are vital to cell function
 * **carbon cycles within an ecosystem**

- the process in which carbon is passed from one organism to another, then to the abiotic community, and finally back to the plants

__﻿Chapter 5__
- cells, or products made by cells, are the units of structure and function in all organisms - all cells come from preexisting cells - cells of prokaryotes: bacteria do not have a membrane enclosing their DNA - cells of eukaryotes: plants, animals, and other familiar organisms: usually have at least one membrane-enclosed structure, the nucleus, which contains DNA - other membrane-enclosed structures besides a nucleus that eukaryotic cells have - plasma membrane - endoplasmic reticulum (ER) - golgi apparatus - a membrane-enclosed structure in the cytoplasm of a cell or a unicellular organism - the sum of all the chemical changes taking place in an organism - as a part of a cell's or organism's metabolism, biologically important molecules are processed, energy is transferred to ATP, and waste materials are released - not all energy is used immediately for metabolism - the movement of a substance down its concentration gradient from a more concentrated area to a less concentrated area - the diffusion of a substance across a biological membrane by means of a transport protein - move stbstances __down__ their concentration gradient - energy in the form of ATP is used to move substances through the transport proteins - by means of active transport, substances can move across a membrane __against__ a concentration gradient a framework of fibers, determines the direction of the celll's devision. some of the spindle fibers attach themselves to the chromosomes
 * **cell theory**
 * **prokaryotes and eukaryotes**
 * **organelles**
 * -** an organized structure within a cell, with a specific function
 * **membranes organize eukaryotic cells**
 * 1) 2 lipid layers
 * 2) surface and embedded proteins with attached carbonhydrates
 * 3) controls passage of materials into and out of cell.
 * 4) outer membrane encloses the cell's contents
 * 1) tubular membrane system that compartmentalizes the cytosol
 * 2) plays a central role in biosynthesis reactions, specializes in the synthesis and transport of lipods and membrane proteins
 * 1) system of flatened sacs that modifies sorts, and packages macromolecules in vesicles for secretion or for delivery to other organelles
 * **﻿nuclear envelope**
 * -** the membrane in eukaryotes that encloses the genetic material, separating it from the cytoplasm
 * **gene**
 * -** the nucleus contains most of the genes: the units of hereditary information that control the basic function of the cell
 * **chromosome**
 * -** a long, threadlike group of genes found in the nucleus of all eukaryotic cells group of genes found in the nucleus of all eukaryotic cells and most visible during mitosis and meiosis
 * **mitochondria**
 * -** the cell organelles in eukaryotic cells that carry on cellular respiratioprotein n, releasing energy from food molecules and storing it in ATP
 * **ribosome**
 * -** a cell organelle constructed in the nucleus, consisting of two subunits and functioning as the site of synthesis in the cytoplasm
 * **lysosome**
 * -** a cell vesicle that contains digestive enzymes
 * **centriole**
 * -** one of two structures in animal cells, composed of cylinders of nine triplet microtubules in a ring
 * **chloroplast**
 * -** an organelle found only in plants and photosynthetic protists
 * **vacuole**
 * **metabolism**
 * **diffusion**
 * **osmosis**
 * -** the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane
 * **passive transport**
 * **- no energy is expended by the cell
 * **active transport**
 * **the cell cycle**
 * - [[image:cycle.gif]]**
 * -** the life of a eukaryotic cell consists of a continuous sequence of events
 * **mitosis**
 * - [[image:mitosis_300_364.jpg width="416" height="430"]]**
 * - spindle apparatus**

__Chapter 6__
- in plants, asexual reproduction sometimes is called vegetative reproduction - usually small - sometimes it is thousands of times larger than a sperm cell - one of two strands of a replicated chromosome before their separation during mitosis or meiosis - the specialized region of a chromosome that holds two replicated chromosomal strands together and that attaches to the spindle in mitosis - a substance, secreted by cells or glands, that has a regulatory effect on cells and organs elsewhere in the body - traveling in the blood to all parts of the body, hormones act as messengers that influence other organs - a hormone from one organ may affect another organ, which can respond in striking ways - a relationship in which one activity of an organism affects another, which in turn affects the first, yielding a regulatory balance - the female reproductive cycle that is characterized by regularly recurring changes in the uterine lining - a hollow muscular organ, located in the female pelvis, in which a fetus develops - a specialized part of the base of the brain that in humans combines neuron and hormone activity - endocrine gland attached to the base of the brain, consisting of an anterior and a posterior lobe - a hormone that stimulates the development of female secondary sexual characteristics - a female hormone secreted by the corpus luteum of the ovary and by the placenta that acts to prepare and maintain the uterus for pregnancy and to prepare the breasts for lactation - in human females, the period of cessation of menstruation, usually occurring between the ages of 45 and 50
 * **the life cycle**
 * **- all the events that occur between the beginning of one generation and the beginning of the next
 * **sexual reproduction**
 * -** reproduction generally requires two parents and two different special cells, one from each parent
 * **gamete**
 * -** a sex cell, either an egg cell or a sperm, formed by meiosis
 * **asexual reproduction**
 * -** any method of reproduction that requires only one parent or one parent cell
 * **sperm cell**
 * -** a male gamete, usually motile in swimming movements
 * **ovum**
 * -** a female gamete, or egg
 * **fertilization**
 * -** the union of an egg nucleus and a sperm nucleus / join the hapliod chromosomes in the soerm and the ovum together to become the diploid chromomes ready for the development
 * **zygote**
 * -** the diploid product of the union of haploid gametes in conception, a fertilized egg
 * 1. haploid**
 * -** a cell containing only one member (n) of each chromosome pair characteristic of a specie.
 * 2. diploid**
 * -** a cell containing both members of every chromosome pair characteristic of a species (2n)
 * **meiosis**
 * - [[image:meiosis.jpg]]**
 * **chromatid**
 * **centromere**
 * **hormone****﻿**
 * **feedback system****﻿**
 * **menstrual cycle****﻿**
 * **uterus****﻿**
 * **hypothalamus**
 * **pituitary**
 * **estrogen****﻿**
 * **progesterone**
 * **menopause****﻿**

__Chapter 7__
- interactions between different cell types alsp can play an important role in differentiation - an animal embryo after the cleavage stage, when a pattern of cell movements toward the outside of the ball of cells results in a fluid - filled cavity inside - an early embyo at the stage when infolding of cells from the outside occurs - - an embryonic membrane that surrounds all the other embryonic membranes in reptiles, birds, and mammals - a structure in the pregnant uterus for nourishing a fetus with the mother's blood supply, formed from the uterine lining and embryonic membranes - in placental mammals, a trube connecting the embryo with the placenta - a sac or membrane, filled with fluid, that encloses the embryo of a reptile, bird, or mammal
 * **development**
 * -** a series of events that converts a single cell into a fully formed individual
 * **differentiation**
 * -** the process by which new cells specialize and become different in appearance and function from their parent cell
 * **cleavage**
 * -** the process of cell division in animal cells, characterized by rapId cell divisions without growth that occur during early embryonic development and that convert the zygote into a ball of cells
 * **blastula**
 * **gastrula**
 * **chorion**
 * **placenta**
 * **umbilical cord**
 * **amnion**
 * **fetus**
 * -** a vertebrate embryo in later stages of development when it has attained the recognizable structural plan and features of its type
 * **oncogene**
 * -** a gene found in viruses or as part of the normal genome that is crucial for triggering cancerous characteristics
 * **﻿regulatory molecules**
 * -** one tissue or cell type can influence the differentiation of other cells

__**Chapter 8**__
- offsprings are called **hybrids** - replication of DNA - DNA makes RNA and RNA makes protein - How DNA determines the formation of a protein. DNA codes for protein structure. - How is the genetic information coded in DNA translated into protein? 1. the DNA code is transcribed into mRNA in the nucleus;2. mRNA moves into the cytoplasm, attaching to a ribosome; 3. each codon of mRNA selects a tRNA with a specific amino acid; 4. the ribosome reads the mRNA and joins amino acids to form a protein; 5. after delivering its amino acid, tRNA picks up another amino acid molecule.
 * **dominant**
 * -** a trait that is visible in a herterozygous organism
 * **recessive**
 * -** a term used to describe an allele or trit that is masked by a dominant allele or trait
 * **principle of segregation[[image:mendels-test-cross-method.jpg align="right"]]**
 * -** during meiosis, chromosome pairs that separate into different gametes such that each of the two alleles for a giben trait appears in a different gamete
 * **alleles**
 * -** one of two or more possible forms of a gene, each affecting the hereditary trait somewhat differently
 * **genotype**
 * -** the genetic makeup of an organism (Aa, AA, aa)
 * **phenotyoe**
 * -** the expression of a genotype in the appearance or function of an organism (blue eyes, brown eyes)
 * **homozygous**
 * -** having two identical alleles for a given trait
 * **heterozygous**
 * -** having two different alleles for a given trait
 * **DNA**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**
 * **dihybrid crosses & x-linked trait**

== ==
 * **Techniques of Recombinant DNA**

__**Chapter 15**__

 * **ingestion**: the process of taking food into the entrance of the digestive tract. (when food enter the mouth)
 * **digestion:**
 * 1) mechanical digestion: chewing food in the mouth;
 * 2) chemical digestion: digest / breakdown of substances inside the body.
 * **absorption:** almost all absorption of nutrients occurs in the lower part of the small intestine and food molecules go through their final chemical break
 * **glycolysis:**